1. S-V Agreement
A subject and a verb must agree in number.
1) When the subject is third person singular and the verb is in the simple present,
a final -s or -es is added to the verb.
Peter wears a hat every day.
Jane eats some food and drinks some juice.
She washes the dishes.
2) When a sentence begins with there or here, the be-verb and the following subject
must agree in number.
There is a cat in the garden.
There are cats in the garden.
Here is your umbrella.
Here are my reasons.
3) When a modifying phrase or clause comes between the subject and the verb,
the phrase or clause does not affect agreement in number.
The key to the doors are in the drawer. (X)
The key to the doors is in the drawer. (O)
4) In an adjective clause with a relative pronoun, the verb must agree with
the noun referred to by the relative pronoun.
A hiker can go to places that is far from any road. (X)
A hiker can go to places that are far from any road. (O)
5) When a gerund is used as the subject of a sentence, the verb must be singular
because a gerund is singular.
Playing tennis are fun. (X)
Playing tennis is fun. (O)
. Verbs
2.1. Tense
2.1.1. Verb Forms
The form of a verb depends on its tense. The present participle (V-ing) cannot act as a
verb alone.
He going to school. (X)
He goes to school. (O)
He went to school. (O)
He will go to school. (O)
He is going to school. (O)
He was going to school. (O)
2.1.2. Present Tense
1) Simple Present
The simple present expresses general statements of fact, timeless truths, and
habitual or everyday activities.
now
Dogs are faithful animals.
The sun rises in the east.
Susan takes a shower every morning.
2) Present Continuous
The present continuous expresses an activity that is in progress at the moment of
speaking.
am/is/are + V-ing
now
Susan is taking a shower.
Jack and Jill are playing computer games right now.
2.1.3. Past Tense
1) Simple Past
The simple past expresses an activity or situation that began and ended at a particular
time in the past (usually with past time adverbs).
Mozart wrote music 250 years ago.
I went to the movies three times last week.
2) Past Continuous
The past continuous expresses an action that was in progress at a particular time
in the past.
was/were + V-ing
now
Ted was reading a book at 9 p.m. last night.
When I woke up, the birds were singing outside my window.
3) Tense Agreement
- When the main verb of a sentence is in the simple past, the verb in the noun
clause will also usually be in its past form.
Mary said that she was tired.
- When two main verbs of a sentence are linked by and and the first verb is in
the simple past, the second verb must also be in the simple past.
I watched TV and did my homework at the same time.
4) Irregular Verb Forms
| Irregular Verb Forms | ||
| cut - cut | let - let | put - put |
2.1.4. Present Perfect
1) Present Perfect
has/have + p.p.
- The present perfect expresses the idea that something happened before now at
an unspecified time in the past (usually with already, never, yet, etc).
now
I have already seen that movie.
I have never seen snow.
- The present perfect also expresses the repetition of an activity before now
(usually with once, twice, etc).
now
We have had three tests so far this semester.
Ann has been to
- The present perfect, when used with for or since, also expresses a situation that
began in the past and continues to the present.
now
Bob has been ill since last weekend.
Mark and Liz have lived in
2) Present Perfect Continuous
The present perfect continuous is used to indicate the duration of an activity that began
in the past and continues to the present (usually with for, since, all morning, all day,
all week).
have been+ V-ing
now
I have been studying English for three hours.
I have been cleaning my room all morning.
3) Present Perfect vs. Simple Past
The present perfect expresses an activity or situation that occurred before now, at an
unspecified time in the past. The simple past is used to talk about activities or
situations that began and ended at a specific time in the past.
I have already finished my work.
I finished my work two hours ago.
2.1.5. Future Tense
Be going to and will are used to express future time.
will/be going to + V
now
1) When the speaker is making a prediction, either will or be going to is possible.
The weather will/is going to be nice tomorrow.
2) When the speaker is expressing a prior plan, only be going to is used.
Jay is going to fly to
3) When the speaker is expressing willingness, only will is used.
Don´t worry. I will help you.
2.2. Voice
The voice of a verb indicates whether the subject of a sentence is the doer or the
receiver of the action.
2.2.1. Active/Passive
The active voice expresses that the subject does the action of the verb. The passive
voice expresses that the subject receives the action of the verb. In an active sentence,
the focus is on the doer of the action. However, in a passive sentence, the focus is on
the receiver of the action.
be + p.p. (+ by + object)
1) The passive is used when it is not important to know exactly who performed the
action.
Rice is grown in
2) The passive is used when we do not know who performed the action.
My book was stolen while I was at the library.
3) The passive is used when the performer of the action is obvious and doesn´t need
to be mentioned.
The book was found and given to me later.
4) The passive is used when the action is done by people in general.
Books can be bought at many stores.
5) Only transitive verbs can be changed into the passive voice.
Hangeul was invented by Sejong the Great.
2.3. Verb Types
2.3.1. Transitive/Intransitive Verb
1) Transitive verbs must have an object and do not need a preposition in front of the
object.
The students discuss about the topic. (X)
The students discuss the topic. (O)
2) Intransitive verbs have no objects.
Birds fly.
The baby cried loudly.
2.3.2. Linking Verb
1) Common linking verbs are be, feel, smell, sound, taste, look/seem/appear, and
become/get. These verbs do not express actions. They link the subject with a word or
words that describe it. Linking verbs are usually followed by an adjective. They are
never followed by an adverb.
Justin felt sadly. (X)
Justin felt sad. (O)
The food smells wonderfully. (X)
The food smells wonderful. (O)
4. Pronouns
4.1. Case
4.1.1. Objective Case
| Subjective Case | Objective Case |
| I | me |
1) When a pronoun is used as the object of a verb, its objective case should be used.
I love he. (X)
I love him. (O)
She wants they to visit she. (X)
She wants them to visit her. (O)
2) When a pronoun is used as the object of a preposition, its objective case should be used.
It belongs to I. (X)
It belongs to me. (O)
It is easy for she to say so. (X)
It is easy for her to say so. (O)
4.1.2. Possessive
| Possessive Adjectives | Possessive Pronouns |
| my | mine |
1) Possessive adjectives are followed by a noun.
I agree with your decide. (X)
I agree with your decision. (O)
2) Possessive pronouns are not followed by a noun.
Have you seen mine pen? (X)
A: Is this your pen? (O)
B: Yes, it´s mine. (O)
4.2. It, This / That
4.2.1. It
1) Pronoun ´It´
You use it to refer to an object, animal or singular demonstrative pronoun (this or that)
that has just been mentioned.
A: Where is the book I lent you?
B: It is in my bag.
A: Is this yours?
B: No, it´s not mine.
2) Impersonal ´It´
You can use it as the subject of ´be,´ to state the time, day, or date. It can also
describe the weather or the intensity of light.
A: What day is it today?
B: It´s Wednesday.
A: How far is it from here to your school?
B: It´s about 1 km.
It is dark in this room.
It is hot and humid in (the) summer.
3) Preparatory ´It´
If the subject or the object of a sentence is a to-infinitive, gerund, or that clause, it is
often replaced with 'it' and put at the end of the sentence.
It is important to help others.
I found it easy to learn English.
It is no use crying over spilt milk.
I found it interesting talking with him.
Is it true that the earth is moving very fast?
He thought it strange that she had nothing to say.
4.2.2. This / That / These / Those
1) This and that are used as adjectives or pronouns referring to an object, animal, or a
person. You use this to refer to a person or thing that is very near to you while you use
that to refer to a person or thing that you can see or hear, but that is relatively not close
to you, so that, for example, you cannot put out your hand and touch it.
This is my book. (´This´s´ is NOT acceptable.)
That is your pen. (´That´s´ is acceptable.)
2) These is the plural form of this.
These are my books.
These is my book.
3) Those is the plural form of that.
Those are my pens.
That is my pen.
4) We can use ´this, that, these, those´ as an adjective.
This keys is mine. (X)
This key is mine. (O)
Are these photo yours? (X)
Are these photos yours? (O)
4.3. Forms of 'Other'
We use another only to refer to an indefinite, singular idea. Others is used only as
a plural pronoun (not accompanied by a noun). In all other cases,
other is correct.
| | singular | plural |
| Indefinite | I have another book. | I have other books. |
| Definite | I have the other book. | I have the other books. |
1) Another (an + other) thing or person of a particular kind means one more
thing or person of that kind. Another is used either as an adjective or as a pronoun.
He just ate a cupcake.
He is going to eat another cupcakes. (X)
He is going to eat another cupcake. (O)
2) Other is used as an adjective to modify plural nouns and uncountable nouns,
and others (other + noun) is used as a pronoun, so it´s not followed by a noun.
Do not tell my secret to other person. (X)
Do not tell my secret to other people. (O)
Some boys are tall, but other are short (X)
Some boys are tall, but others are short. (O)
3) When you are talking about two people or things and have already referred
to one of them, you refer to the second one as the other or the other one.
When you are talking about more than two people or things and have already
referred to one or more of them, you refer to the remaining ones as the others.
- When talking about only two
I read two books. One was good but the others was not. (X)
I read two books. One was good but another was not. (X)
I read two books. One was good but the other (one) was not. (O)
- When talking about more than two
There are four seasons in
The other are summer, fall and winter. (X)
The others are summer, fall and winter. (O)
5. Prepositions
5.1. Prepositions of Place
1) At is used to talk about a specific spot where something happens.
She is waiting at the bus stop.
Someone is standing at the door.
2) In is used to talk about a space, the place or an area where someone or
something is, or where something happens.
Put them in the box.
I like swimming in the sea.
We are going to stay overnight in
3) On is used to say where someone or something is by mentioning the object or
surface that is supporting them.
The book is on the desk.
Her office is on the fifth floor.
4) To is used to mention the place where someone goes.
People were taken to the hospital.
What time do we get to
5) Across is used to indicate movement from one side to the other.
She walked across the garden.
The news was broadcast across the globe.
6) Other Prepositions of Place
B is between A and C.
D is behind B.
A is beside B.
B is next to C.
E is in front of B.
A, B, and C are above Y.
D is over Y.
X, Y, and Z are below D.
Y is under D.
5.2. Prepositions of Time
1) You use at when you are mentioning a precise time.
I usually get up at 7:00 o´clock.
cf. at night
2) You use on when you are mentioning a particular day or date.
I´ll call you on Thursday.
What are you doing on Saturday afternoon?
Christmas is on December 25
.
Peter was born on the 14 of August, 1989.
3) You use in to say that something happens during a particular year, month, or
season.
I was born in April.
The Korean War broke out in 1950.
cf. You use in for nonspecific times during a day.
in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening.
We always listen to the radio in the morning.
I was the smartest student in fourth grade.
4) For is used before a quantity of time while since is used before a specific time.
For answers the question, ´how long´ while since answers the question, beginning
´when.´
She has lived in Seoul for 5 years.
I´ve been wearing glasses since I was sixteen.
cf. During is used before a period of time that is not quantified.
Where are you going during the summer vacation?
5) If something happens by a particular time, it happens at or before that time.
If you do something until a particular time, you stop doing it at that time.
I´ll come back here by 5 o´clock.
You have to finish your report by tomorrow.
Can you wait for me until 7 o´clock?
I´ll stay here until next week.
5.3. Prepositions of Medium
On is used for electronic mediums (on the Internet, on TV) and in for print mediums
(in newspapers, in a magazine, in books).
I found this information on the Internet.
I read about this in the newspaper.
I heard about this on the radio.
I saw this on television.
5.4. Objects of Prepositions
1) The object of a preposition is basically a noun structure.
She is working in the garden.
2) You cannot use a verb or to-infinitive as an object. You should use a gerund.
She is good at play soccer. (X)
She is good at playing soccer. (O)
5.5 Prepositions after Particular Words and Expressions
afraid of (by)
Are you afraid of spiders?
agree with
He left the firm because he didn´t agree with their sales policy.
I entirely agree with you.
angry with (sometimes at) someone for doing something
I´m angry with her for lying to me.
angry about (sometimes at)
What are you so angry about?
anxious about (= worried about)
I´m getting anxious about money.
anxious + to-infinitive (= eager, wanting)
She´s anxious to find a better job.
apologize to somebody for something
I think we should apologize to the Smiths for disturbing them.
arrive at / in (to)
What time do we arrive at the airport?
When did you arrive in
bad / poor at (in)
I am bad at tennis.
believe in God, ghosts, etc (= believe that … exists)
I believe in life after death.
belong to (= be a member of)
I belong to a local athletics club.
congratulate / congratulations on (in/at)
I must congratulate you on your exam results.
Congratulations on your new job!
depend / dependent on (from/of)
We may play football - it depends on the weather.
He doesn´t want to be dependent on his parents.
die of / from
More people died of flu in 1919 than were killed in the First World War.
A week after the accident he died from his injuries.
difficulty with (to) something, difficulty (in) doing something
I´m having difficulty with my travel arrangements.
You won´t have much difficulty (in) getting to know people in
disappointed with
The public is very disappointed with their new President.
discussion about
We had a long discussion about politics.
divide into (in)
The book is divided into three parts.
dream of (= think of, imagine)
I often dreamed of being famous when I was younger.
dream about (while asleep)
What does it mean if you dream about mountains?
dream of
Many Koreans dream of reunification.
drive into (against)
Granny drove into a tree again yesterday.
enter into an agreement, a discussion etc
We´ve just entered into an agreement with
example of (for)
Jane is an example of a model student.
explain something to somebody (explain somebody something)
Could you explain this rule to me?
fight / struggle with
I regret fighting with my brother.
get in(to) and out of a car, taxi or small boat
When I got into my car, I found the radio had been stolen.
get on(to) and off a train, plane, bus, ship, (motor)bike or horse
We´ll be getting off the train in ten minutes.
good at (in)
I´m not very good at cooking.
the idea of (to) -ing
I don´t like the idea of getting married yet.
ill / sick with
The teacher was ill/ sick with the flu last week.
impressed with / by
I´m very impressed with/by your work.
increase in (of) activity, output etc
I´d like to see a big increase in quality.
independent of, independence from
She got a job so that she could be independent of her parents.
When did
insist on (to)
George´s father insisted on paying for dinner.
interest / interested in (for)
When did your interest in social work begin?
Not many people are interested in grammar.
kind / polite to (with)
People have always been very kind/polite to me.
lack of
Lack of time prevented me from writing.
lacking in
She is lacking in speaking skills.
laugh at
I hate being laughed at.
listen to
If you don´t listen to people, they won´t listen to you.
look at (= point one´s eyes at)
Stop looking at me like that.
look after (= take care of)
Thanks for looking after me when I was ill.
look for (= try to find)
Can you help me look for my keys?
marriage to; get / be married to (with)
Her marriage to Philip didn´t last very long.
How long have you been married to Sheila?
marry somebody (NO preposition)
She married her childhood sweetheart.
pay for something that is bought (pay something)
Excuse me, sir. You haven´t paid for your drink.
pleased with somebody
The boss is very pleased with you.
prevent / stop … from (to) -ing
The noise from downstairs prevented me from sleeping.
reason for (of)
Nobody knows the reason for the accident
remind somebody of
She reminds me of someone I used to know.
responsible / responsibility for (of)
Who´s responsible for cleaning the classroom this week?
rude to (with)
Peggy was pretty rude to my family last weekend.
run into (= meet)
I ran into David at the movie theater last night.
search (= look through; look everywhere in/on) (no preposition)
They searched everybody´s luggage.
search for (= look for)
The rescue team was searching for survivors.
shocked at / by
I was terribly shocked at/by the news of Peter´s accident.
shout at (aggressive behavior)
If you don´t stop shouting at me, I will tell the teacher.
shout to (= call to)
Mary shouted to us to come in and swim.
smile at
If you smile at me like that, , I’m going to start laughing.
speak to / with
Could I speak to / with your father for a moment?
suffer from
My wife is suffering from a serious disease.
surprised at / by
Everybody was surprised at/by the sudden change in the weather.
take part in (at / of)
I don´t want to take part in any more meetings.
think of / about (think to)
I´m thinking of studying medicine.
I´ve also thought about studying dentistry.
the thought of (to)
I became nervous at the thought of giving a presentation.
throw ... at (aggressive behavior)
Stop throwing stones at the ducks.
throw … to (in a game etc)
If you get the ball, throw it to me.
translate into (in)
Could you translate this into Spanish for me?
trip over
He tripped over the ball and fell down the stairs.
typical of (for)
The yellow sand storm has now become typical of Korean spring.
wrong with
What´s wrong with Rachel today?
5. Prepositions
5.1. Prepositions of Place
1) At is used to talk about a specific spot where something happens.
She is waiting at the bus stop.
Someone is standing at the door.
2) In is used to talk about a space, the place or an area where someone or
something is, or where something happens.
Put them in the box.
I like swimming in the sea.
We are going to stay overnight in
3) On is used to say where someone or something is by mentioning the object or
surface that is supporting them.
The book is on the desk.
Her office is on the fifth floor.
4) To is used to mention the place where someone goes.
People were taken to the hospital.
What time do we get to
5) Across is used to indicate movement from one side to the other.
She walked across the garden.
The news was broadcast across the globe.
6) Other Prepositions of Place
B is between A and C.
D is behind B.
A is beside B.
B is next to C.
E is in front of B.
A, B, and C are above Y.
D is over Y.
X, Y, and Z are below D.
Y is under D.
5.2. Prepositions of Time
1) You use at when you are mentioning a precise time.
I usually get up at 7:00 o´clock.
cf. at night
2) You use on when you are mentioning a particular day or date.
I´ll call you on Thursday.
What are you doing on Saturday afternoon?
Christmas is on December 25.
Peter was born on the 14 of August, 1989.
3) You use in to say that something happens during a particular year, month, or
season.
I was born in April.
The Korean War broke out in 1950.
cf. You use in for nonspecific times during a day.
in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening.
We always listen to the radio in the morning.
I was the smartest student in fourth grade.
4) For is used before a quantity of time while since is used before a specific time.
For answers the question, ´how long´ while since answers the question, beginning
´when.´
She has lived in Seoul for 5 years.
I´ve been wearing glasses since I was sixteen.
cf. During is used before a period of time that is not quantified.
Where are you going during the summer vacation?
5) If something happens by a particular time, it happens at or before that time.
If you do something until a particular time, you stop doing it at that time.
I´ll come back here by 5 o´clock.
You have to finish your report by tomorrow.
Can you wait for me until 7 o´clock?
I´ll stay here until next week.
5.3. Prepositions of Medium
On is used for electronic mediums (on the Internet, on TV) and in for print mediums
(in newspapers, in a magazine, in books).
I found this information on the Internet.
I read about this in the newspaper.
I heard about this on the radio.
I saw this on television.
5.4. Objects of Prepositions
1) The object of a preposition is basically a noun structure.
She is working in the garden.
2) You cannot use a verb or to-infinitive as an object. You should use a gerund.
She is good at play soccer. (X)
She is good at playing soccer. (O)
5.5 Prepositions after Particular Words and Expressions
afraid of (by)
Are you afraid of spiders?
agree with
He left the firm because he didn´t agree with their sales policy.
I entirely agree with you.
angry with (sometimes at) someone for doing something
I´m angry with her for lying to me.
angry about (sometimes at)
What are you so angry about?
anxious about (= worried about)
I´m getting anxious about money.
anxious + to-infinitive (= eager, wanting)
She´s anxious to find a better job.
apologize to somebody for something
I think we should apologize to the Smiths for disturbing them.
arrive at / in (to)
What time do we arrive at the airport?
When did you arrive in
bad / poor at (in)
I am bad at tennis.
believe in God, ghosts, etc (= believe that … exists)
I believe in life after death.
belong to (= be a member of)
I belong to a local athletics club.
congratulate / congratulations on (in/at)
I must congratulate you on your exam results.
Congratulations on your new job!
depend / dependent on (from/of)
We may play football - it depends on the weather.
He doesn´t want to be dependent on his parents.
die of / from
More people died of flu in 1919 than were killed in the First World War.
A week after the accident he died from his injuries.
difficulty with (to) something, difficulty (in) doing something
I´m having difficulty with my travel arrangements.
You won´t have much difficulty (in) getting to know people in
disappointed with
The public is very disappointed with their new President.
discussion about
We had a long discussion about politics.
divide into (in)
The book is divided into three parts.
dream of (= think of, imagine)
I often dreamed of being famous when I was younger.
dream about (while asleep)
What does it mean if you dream about mountains?
dream of
Many Koreans dream of reunification.
drive into (against)
Granny drove into a tree again yesterday.
enter into an agreement, a discussion etc
We´ve just entered into an agreement with
example of (for)
Jane is an example of a model student.
explain something to somebody (explain somebody something)
Could you explain this rule to me?
fight / struggle with
I regret fighting with my brother.
get in(to) and out of a car, taxi or small boat
When I got into my car, I found the radio had been stolen.
get on(to) and off a train, plane, bus, ship, (motor)bike or horse
We´ll be getting off the train in ten minutes.
good at (in)
I´m not very good at cooking.
the idea of (to) -ing
I don´t like the idea of getting married yet.
ill / sick with
The teacher was ill/ sick with the flu last week.
impressed with / by
I´m very impressed with/by your work.
increase in (of) activity, output etc
I´d like to see a big increase in quality.
independent of, independence from
She got a job so that she could be independent of her parents.
When did
insist on (to)
George´s father insisted on paying for dinner.
interest / interested in (for)
When did your interest in social work begin?
Not many people are interested in grammar.
kind / polite to (with)
People have always been very kind/polite to me.
lack of
Lack of time prevented me from writing.
lacking in
She is lacking in speaking skills.
laugh at
I hate being laughed at.
listen to
If you don´t listen to people, they won´t listen to you.
look at (= point one´s eyes at)
Stop looking at me like that.
look after (= take care of)
Thanks for looking after me when I was ill.
look for (= try to find)
Can you help me look for my keys?
marriage to; get / be married to (with)
Her marriage to Philip didn´t last very long.
How long have you been married to Sheila?
marry somebody (NO preposition)
She married her childhood sweetheart.
pay for something that is bought (pay something)
Excuse me, sir. You haven´t paid for your drink.
pleased with somebody
The boss is very pleased with you.
prevent / stop … from (to) -ing
The noise from downstairs prevented me from sleeping.
reason for (of)
Nobody knows the reason for the accident
remind somebody of
She reminds me of someone I used to know.
responsible / responsibility for (of)
Who´s responsible for cleaning the classroom this week?
rude to (with)
Peggy was pretty rude to my family last weekend.
run into (= meet)
I ran into David at the movie theater last night.
search (= look through; look everywhere in/on) (no preposition)
They searched everybody´s luggage.
search for (= look for)
The rescue team was searching for survivors.
shocked at / by
I was terribly shocked at/by the news of Peter´s accident.
shout at (aggressive behavior)
If you don´t stop shouting at me, I will tell the teacher.
shout to (= call to)
Mary shouted to us to come in and swim.
smile at
If you smile at me like that, , I’m going to start laughing.
speak to / with
Could I speak to / with your father for a moment?
suffer from
My wife is suffering from a serious disease.
surprised at / by
Everybody was surprised at/by the sudden change in the weather.
take part in (at / of)
I don´t want to take part in any more meetings.
think of / about (think to)
I´m thinking of studying medicine.
I´ve also thought about studying dentistry.
the thought of (to)
I became nervous at the thought of giving a presentation.
throw ... at (aggressive behavior)
Stop throwing stones at the ducks.
throw … to (in a game etc)
If you get the ball, throw it to me.
translate into (in)
Could you translate this into Spanish for me?
trip over
He tripped over the ball and fell down the stairs.
typical of (for)
The yellow sand storm has now become typical of Korean spring.
wrong with
What´s wrong with Rachel today?
7. Participles
7.1. Present vs. Past Participle
Participles modify a noun and serve as a complement just like an adjective.
The ending of the movie was quite interesting/boring/exciting/surprising.
The movie had a(n) interesting/boring/exciting/surprising ending.
She is interested in math.
I was very bored with today´s topic.
Look at the excited people.
The people were surprised by the election result.
1) Present Participles have an active and progressive meaning.
Growing children need nutritious food. (still growing)
2) Past Participles have a passive and perfect meaning.
She is a grown woman. (already grown)
7.2. Participial Construction
7.2.1. Adjective Clause to Adjective Phrase
An adjective clause can be reduced to an adjective phrase only when the clause has
who, which, or that as its subject.
1) Omit the subject pronoun (who, which, or that) in the adjective clause or phrase.
2) If there is a verb ´be´ in the subordinate clause, we omit the ´be´, and if there is a
verb other than 'be', we change the verb to its -ing form.
Do you know the woman who is coming towards us?
-> Do you know the woman coming towards us?
He comes from a city which is located in the northern part of the
-> He comes from a city located in the northern part of the
Korean has an alphabet that consists of 24 letters.
-> Korean has an alphabet consisting of 24 letters.
7.2.2. Adverb Clause to Adverb Phrase
1) Omit the subject in the adverb clause or phrase.
2) If there is a verb ´be´ in the subordinate clause, we omit the ´be´, and if there is a
verb other than 'be', we change the verb to its -ing form.
3) We don´t usually omit a conjunction in a time-clause to convey the exact meaning.
While I was sitting in the church, I fell asleep.
-> While sitting in the church, I fell asleep.
After I ate dinner, I walked my dog.
-> After eating dinner, I walked my dog.
4) If the causal relationship is clear, we omit a conjunction in a reason-clause.
Since it is located over a vast area,
-> Located over a vast area,
Because we took the bus, we saved a lot of money.
-> Taking the bus, we saved a lot of money.
8. Clauses
8.1. Independent vs. Dependent Clauses
The main clause of a sentence is called an independent clause because
it can stand alone as a sentence, without the help of another clause.
You join two or more independent clauses with a comma and a conjunction
such as and, but, or, so, and yet.
The teacher lectured. And the students took notes. (X)
The teacher lectured, and the students took notes. (O)
It was cold. So I couldn't go out for a walk.
It was cold, so I couldn't go out for a walk. (better example)
He didn't study. Yet he passed the exam.
He didn't study, yet he passed the exam. (better example)
It snowed. But the school was still open.
It snowed, but the school was still open. (better example)
Andrew failed. Because he did not study. (X)
Andrew failed because he did not study. (O)
A dependent clause, also called a subordinate clause, does not express
a complete idea, so it cannot stand alone. You must connect it to a main
clause by using a subordinator.
There are three kinds of subordinate clauses according to their functions in
sentences: noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses.
8.2. Noun Clauses
A noun clause is formed with a subordinator(that, if / whether, wh-words) +
subject + verb (+ rest of the clause).
Do not separate the noun clause with the main clause.
Sally wonders. If Mark knows how to dance. (X)
Sally wonders if Mark knows how to dance. (O)
A noun clause can serve these functions in a sentence:
1) Subject
All people are equal is not true. (X)
That all people are equal is not true. (O)
(= It is not true that all people are equal.)
2) Subject Complement
The question is the new policy will benefit us or not. (X)
The question is whether the new policy will benefit us or not. (O)
3) Object
I don't know he lives. (X)
I don't know where he lives. (O)
4) Object of a Preposition
People are worried about long it will last. (X)
People are worried about how long it will last. (O)
8.3. Adjective (Relative) Clauses
An adjective clause comes after the noun (antecedent) it modifies.
An adjective clause is sometimes called a relative clause because it begins with
a word called a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
Do not separate the adjective clause with the main clause.
I like people. Who are kind. (X)
I like people who are kind. (O)
| Antecedent | Relative Pronoun | Antecedent | Relative Adverb |
| people | who/whose/whom/that | place | where |
8.3.1. The Functions of Relative Pronouns
1) Subject of an Adjective Clause
I don't like stories have sad endings. (X)
I don't like stories which / that have sad endings. (O)
2) Object
cf. When whom, that, or which functions as the direct object of the adjective clause,
you can omit it, with no change in meaning.
The cat is the animal which / that many Americans choose as their pet. (O)
The cat is the animal many Americans choose as their pet. (O)
3) Object of a Preposition
cf. We can omit the relative pronoun which only when we put the preposition
at the end of the sentence.
Math is the subject in I'm interested. (X)
Math is the subject I'm interested. (X)
Math is the subject in which I'm interested. (O)
Math is the subject I'm interested in. (O)
8.3.2. Relative Adverbs vs. Antecedents
I remember the day (when) we first met.
We don’t know the reason she is always late. (X)
We don’t know the reason why she is always late. (O)
cf. Relative adverb where is omitted when a preposition is placed at the end of the
sentence.
This is the town where I was born in. (X)
This is the town I was born in. (O)
This is the town where I was born. (O)
8.4. Adverb Clauses
This clause serves as an adverb, and it means time (when, while, since, as..),
cause (because, since, as..), contrast (although, though, even though..),
and condition(if, unless..).
When I became a high school student, I started studying hard.
Since I was tired, I went to bed early.
Although it was cloudy, he was wearing sunglasses.
cf. The order of the two clauses (main clause and subordinate clause) may be
switched.
If it snows tomorrow, let's go skiing.(O)
-> Let's go skiing if it snows tomorrow.(O)
Do not separate the adverb clause with the main clause.
If it snows tomorrow. Let's go skiing. (X)
If it snows tomorrow, let's go skiing. (O)
